From Speculation to Science: How Psychology Developed Psyche - The soul (Greek) Logos - Study of (Greek) The study of the mind Philosophy and Physiology led the development of Psychology A new science is born... Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Mounted a campaign to make psychology an independent discipline rather than a product of philosophy or physiology Established the first formal laboratory for research then established the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology Consciousness -

Cyberbullying Bullying that occurs online, via the internet. Featured Study: Bullying in Canadian Schoolyards Method Using a naturalist method, Pepler & Craig were able to obverse natural bullying episodes on the school playground. They observed ~35 teacher-nominated aggressive & ~30 teacher-nominated socially competent children, who were an average of 9.9 years old. They also installed microphones on target children who picked up audio of conversations. Results Half (50%) of all bullying episod

DEFINITIONS Hypothesis - An unconfirmed statement of prediction relating two or more variables. Variables - Measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviour that are controlled (independent variable) or observed (dependent variable) in a study. Theory - Set of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. A good theory will generate a host of testable hypotheses. Empirical - A method of research that can be verified by observation and experiment. THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH T

The Scientific Approach to Behaviour Goals of the Scientific Enterprise 3 sets of interrelated goals Measurement & Description Measure phenomenon under study Goal is to develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behaviour, clear and precisely Understanding & Prediction Able to explain the reason for the occurrence of the events Hypothesis - Tentative statement about the relationship between 2 variables Variables - Measurable co

DEFINITIONS Hypothesis - An unconfirmed statement of prediction relating two or more variables. Variables - Measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviour that are controlled (independent variable) or observed (dependent variable) in a study. Theory - Set of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. A good theory will generate a host of testable hypotheses. Empirical - A method of research that can be verified by observation and experiment. THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH T

Nervous System, Brain Researching Methods, Parts of the Brain, Evolutionary Bases Communication in the Nervous System What is the Nervous System? A living tissue composed of cells. Cells in nervous systems receive, integrate & transmit information. 2 Major Categories of Cells in the Nervous System Neurons: Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate & transmit information. Basic link that permit communication in the nervous system. Vast majority communicate only with other neu

The Anatomy of the Nervous System Neurons - Individual cells in the nervous system Receive, integrate, and transmit information Glial Cells - Found throughout the nervous system Provide various types of support for Neurons "Glue" in Greek Cerebrospinal Fluid - Cushions the brain during an impact Forms the blood-brain barrier that prevents foreign material (drugs and viruses) Contributes to the immune system of the brain Neurons Synapse - Junction where information is transmitted from one Neuron

Stimulus - Anything that stimulates the senses Stimuli - Produces response Sensation - The stimulation of sense organs Absorption of energy (light/sound waves) by sensory organs (ears/eyes) Perception - The selection, organization, interpretation, and sensory input Organizing, translating sensory input into something meaningful Synethesia - Perceptual or cognitive activities (listening to music, reading) trigger exceptional experiences (colour, taste) Psychophysics - Basic Concepts and Issues

Threshold, Signal-Detection Theory, Senses What is Synesthesia? Synesthesia is a condition where perceptual or cognitive activities trigger other experiences. One sense is coupled/paired with another (for example, seeing red every time you hear the word ‘train’ OR listening to music can lead to an emotional response known as emotional synesthesia). Do we all have a little synesthesia? We all experience certain events or feelings when we perceive. What is Sensation? What is Perception? Sensation

Somniloquy - Is talking while sleeping. It’s like a soliloquy except done in someone’s slumber. Narcolepsy - Is a sleep disorder where people will randomly go to sleep during the day. The Nature of Consciousness Consciousness Is the awareness (with varying degrees) of internal & external stimuli. Our thoughts flow & fluctuate; William James named this flow the stream of consciousness. Variations in Awareness & Control Attention & consciousness are closely related but not identical. You can hav

The Nature of Consciousness Consciousness Awareness of internal and external stimuli Constant shifting and changing - Essential nature of consciousness Behaviour is the result of conscious thought Almost every human behaviour = Conscious + Unconscious Processing Mind Wandering - People's experience of task unrelated thoughts Biological Rhythms and Sleep Biological Rhythms Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning Variations in consciousness are shaped in part by pysiological functionin

Learning Learning is any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience. Animals can learn & the principles that explain learned responses in animals explain human behaviour as well. Phobias Phobias are irrational fears of objects or situations, often a result of classical conditioning. Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder (10% of Canadian population suffer from these). Agoraphobia Fear of being in public places difficult to escape from or in which it might be

Learning - Any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience Superstitions are often the result of obtaining rewards after engaging in some behaviour Conditioning - Learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment Classical Conditioning Phobia - Irrational fears of specific objects or situations Classical Conditioning - Type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally caused by another s

Encoding Memory, Storing Memory, Memory Retrieval, Forgetting, Physiology of Memory, Systems of Memory & Types of Memory What is Semantic & Episodic Memory? Episodic - Memory for personal events (like when to eat, or events in your life). Semantic - Memory for general information (like facts). This phenomena is represented by patient K.C., who was treated by Endel Tulving at the University of Toronto. Tulving found K.C. had perfect semantic vision but no episodic vision, after a motorcycle acci

Our Memory Helps Defining Who We Are, Our Sense Of Self Tied to our ability to function effectively and efficiently in the immediate moment in social and nonsocial contexts Semantic Memory - Memory for general information Episodic Memory - Memory for personal events Encoding: Getting information Into Memory Encoding - Forming a memory code by getting information Example When you form a memory code for a word, you might emphasize how it looks, how it sounds or what it means. This requires

What is Cognition? The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge. It involves thinking. Language: Turning Thoughts into Words What is Language? A language consists of symbols that convey meaning (and rules for combining those symbols) that can be used to generate messages. 4 Properties of Language: Language is Symbolic: Spoken sounds & written words represent objects, actions, events, ideas, etc. Language is Semantic: It is meaningful. Language is Generative: Limited amount of symbols can

Cognition – Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge Involves thinking Language: Turning thoughts into Words What is language? Consist of symbols that convey meaning and rules combing the symbols Symbolic Use spoken sounds & written words Represent object, actions events & ideal Semantic Meaningful Generative Limited number of symbols combined = message generated Structured The Structure of Language Phonemes – Smallest speech units in language that can be distinguished perceptuall

Key Concepts in Psychological Testing Psychological Test – Standardized Measure of a sample of a person’s behaviour Measures the individual differences Intelligence, aptitudes, interested and aspects of personality Intelligence Test – Measure general ability Assess intellectual potential Aptitude Test – Assess specific types of mental abilities Achievement Test – Measures previous knowledge of various subjects Personality Test – Measures various aspects of personality (motive, interest, value,

Key Concepts in Psychological Testing Psychological Test It is a standardized measure of a sample (potentially not representative) of a person’s behaviour. These tests are measurement instruments that measure the individual differences that exist among people in abilities, aptitudes, interests & aspects of personality. Two Principal Types of Tests Mental Ability Tests - Measure general mental ability. 3 Principle Sub-Categories: Intelligence Tests - Measure general mental ability and intellectua

Motivation Theories, Motivation of Hunger, Sexual Motivation, Emotion Theories Motivational Theories & Concepts What are Motives? The needs, wants, interests & desires that propel people in certain directions & to achieve goals. Motivation involved goal-directed behaviour. What do Drive Theories say? This approach to understanding motivation was explored by Clark Hull in the 1940s & 1950s. These theories apply the homeostasis (a state of physiological equilibrium or stability) concept to behavio

Motivational Theories and Concepts Motivation – Involves goal-directed behaviours Motives – Needs, wants interests and desires that propel people in certain directions Drive Theories Drive – Internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension Apply the concept of homeostasis (state of physiological equilibrium/stability) When individuals experience a drive, they’re motivated to pursue action that will lead to drive reduction Example H

Prenatal Development, Childhood Development, Transition to Adolescence, Adulthood What is Development? The sequence of age-related changes that occur from conception to death. It’s a reasonably orderly, cumulative process that includes the biological & behavioural changes that take place as people age. Prenatal Development - Progress before Birth When does Conception Occur? Conception occurs when fertilization creates a zygote, a one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm & an egg. Cell

Children and their development affected by cultural forces, social class, social force Development - Sequence of age related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death Prenatal Period Between conception and birth Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Progress Before Birth - Prenatal Development Prenatal Period - Conception to birth, usually encompassing 9 months of pregnancy The course of prenatal development Germinal Stage (The first 2 weeks) Zygote created through fe

The Nature of Personality, Psychodynamic Perspectives, Behavioural Perspectives, Humanistic Perspectives, Biological Perspectives, Empirical Approaches to Personality The Nature of Personality What is Personality? Consistency & Distinctiveness An individual’s unique collection of consistent behavioural traits. Consistency: Stability in behaviour across situation lies at the core of personality. Distinctiveness: Behavioural differences among people reacting to the same situation are core to perso

Social Psychology - Concerns with the way individual's thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by others Person, conception, attribution, interpersonal attraction, attitudes, conformity and obedience, behaviour in groups and social neuroscience Person Perception - Forming Impressions of Others Central traits by Solomon Asch Attribute in someone's personality that is considered particularly meaningful, in that its presence or absence signals the presence/absence of other traits Pers

Person Perception, Attribution Processes, Relationships, Attitudes, Conformity, Groups What is Social Psychology? The branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals’ thoughts, feelings & behaviours are influenced by others. Person Perception - Forming Impression of Others What is Person Perception? The process of forming impressions of others. Effects of Physical Appearance Studies have shown that judgments of others’ personality are often swayed by their appearance, especially physica

Types of Stress, Stress Reponses, Stress Effects, Health-Impairing Behaviour What is the Biopsychosocial Model? Model says physical illness is due to complex interactions of biological, psychological & sociocultural factors. What are Contagious & Chronic Diseases? Contagious Diseases: Caused by infectious agents. Diseases such as smallpox, typhoid fever, diphtheria, yellow fever, malaria, cholera, tuberculosis & polio. Plagued most of human history until the end of the 20th century. Chronic Dis

Biopsychosocial Model - Physical illness is caused by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors Health Psychology - How psychological factors relate to this promotion and maintenance of health and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness The Nature of Stress Stress - Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and that thereby tax one's coping abilities Threat Immediate physical safety, long range security,

Statistics About Mental Health Problems ~7 million Canadians have mental health problems & illness. In 2010, 17,000 Canadians were admitted to hospital for suicide & self-injury attempts. Use of anti-anxiety & antidepressant medications has increased significantly in the past decade. Mental illness costs Canada at least ~$50 billion annually & $2.5+ trillion over the next 30 years. Japan has one of the highest suicide rates in the world—over double the rate in Canada. In 2004, 1,100+ PTSD pensio

D. Ewen Cameron Was the founder & director of the Allan Memorial Institute in Montreal. In the late 1950s & early 1960s, he was engaged in CIA-funded research designed to examine brainwashing & thought-control. In Cameron’s facility, patients were exposed to experimental techniques that included extended drug-induced periods of sleep (sometimes for weeks at a time), massive electroconvulsive (shock) therapy regimens, sensory deprivation, hours upon hours of tape-recorded messages, psychic drivin

The Elements of the Treatment Process Psychoanalysis - (Breuer) treated physical pain by having intense emotional exchange Treatments - how many types are there Methods Discussion Advice Emotional support Persuasion Conditioning Procedures Relaxation training Role-playing Drug therapy Biofeedback Group therapy Three major categories Insight Therapies Talk therapy Clients engage in complex verbal interactions with their therapist Goal = pursue increased insight regarding the nature